Author Details:-

Gurleen Kaur,
BBA LLB (4^th year),
St. Soldier Law College.

Abstract:

Domestic violence is a pervasive and complex social problem that requires an extensive and multifaceted legal response. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the intricate interactions that arise when family law and criminal law are applied to domestic abuse, highlighting the challenges, opportunities, and growth paths that arise from these interactions.

Through a critical analysis of relevant statutes, case law, scholarly research, and empirical studies, this article explores the following significant subjects:

• Questions about forum shopping, concurrent jurisdiction, and conflicting orders, and conflicts and overlaps of jurisdiction between the criminal and family courts.
• The purpose, limitations, and the possibility of misuse of restraining and protection orders in the interest of victim protection:
• How choices regarding child custody and visitation are affected by domestic abuse, considering elements such as parental alienation, witness reports, and the best interests of the child
• The impact of domestic abuse on spousal support and property division, including economic abuse, asset concealment, and property division
• Factors that go into criminal prosecution and sentencing in cases of domestic abuse, such as the charges chosen, the plea bargain negotiated, and possible sentences.
• Support services, including victim safety planning, advocacy, counseling, and shelter services; and

These are significant issues that this article addresses:

• Determine which legal frameworks are unclear or ambiguous regarding domestic violence cases.
• Find areas where criminal and family laws overlap and conflict, then investigate how to cooperate and coordinate
• Providing details on strategies, such as community-based initiatives, practice guidelines, and policy changes, for improving legal responses to domestic abuse.
• Promoting the use of a more effective, nurturing, and survivor-focused approach to addressing domestic abuse.

Everyone interested in tackling the complicated and widespread problem of domestic abuse should read this article, including academics, policymakers, and legal professionals.

Introduction

Domestic abuse is a form of violence toward women. Aggressive or violent behaviour in a relationship is defined as violence. The home, typically involving violent abuse or domestic violence committed by a spouse. In India, it is customary due to the national culture. It is characterized by particular traditions and customs that may be considered backward. The dowry system in this democratic nation is a primary cause of domestic violence. The term “dowry” refers to the expensive gifts and money that the bride’s family gives to the groom’s family. This is illegal, and if the dowry is not given in accordance with the male’s family’s wishes, it can lead to domestic violence or physical and psychological abuse of the girl because her father is demanding more money. This case demonstrates the victim’s lack of financial independence and her unwillingness to stand up for herself in order to spare her family from both financial and emotional suffering. This only occurs when the victim is completely oblivious to her rights and is motivated by a lack of knowledge or fear of social stigma. Although the dowry demand system and the domestic violence linked to it are long-standing practices, Indian law did not specifically address them until 1983. Section 498A, which addresses “Matrimonial Cruelty,” was added when the Criminal Code of India (45 of 1860) was amended in 1983. It is defined as “Husband or relative of the husband of a woman subjected her to cruelty.” The crime of matrimonial cruelty is now punishable by law, is not subject to bail, and cannot be compounded. The confluence of criminal and family law indicates that criminal charges of domestic violence impact family law cases, including those involving divorce, child custody, and restraining orders. When a child is involved in these circumstances, allegations of child abuse and neglect can arise, which can result in criminal investigations and charges. These allegations can impact family law cases, including those involving child protective services, custody, and visitation. After a parent-child dispute between the parents can result in parental kidnapping, which can lead to criminal charges when a parent violates custody orders and creates, family law issues. When child support is not paid, a criminal contempt charge may be filed, which straddle the line between criminal and family law. Criminal charges such as fraud and embezzlement may effect the division of assets in divorce. Criminal cases involving minors may also involve family law matters, such as custody and parental responsibility. Restraining orders are frequently granted in family law cases, and breaking them may result in criminal charges.

Legal framework

Family law: relevant case law and statutes

Family law is the collection of rules, laws, and court rulings that safeguard victims of domestic abuse, hold abusers accountable, and offer survivors’ support and legal recourse. This includes property division, family court proceedings, laws specifically addressing domestic violence, protection orders, child custody agreements, and the legal acceptance of domestic violence as a basis for divorce or separation. Ensuring victim safety and wellbeing, stopping additional abuse, helping survivors start over, and encouraging positive, nonviolent family dynamics are the main objectives.

Relevant case laws:

1. Mohd. Ahmed Khan vs. Shah Bano and Ors, 1985, SCR (3) 844:
   The Supreme Court held that Section 125 of the CrPC (Section 144 of the recently enacted Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita “BNSS”) applies to all citizens, including Muslims. The court ruled that the provision for maintenance under Section 125 was not in conflict with Muslim Personal Law but rather supplemented it. The court directed the husbands to pay Shah Bano Begum maintenance.
2. Shamim Ara v. State of U.P. (MANU/SC/0850/2002):
   In this case, the Supreme Court believed that a Talaq alone was not sufficient to uphold the ruling. To obtain a Talaq, one must follow the Quranic procedures, which require the Talaq to be declared in accordance with the Quranic injunction.
3. Ankush Narayan v. Janabai:
   In this case, the court stated that when a widow adopts a son, he becomes the adoptive father’s son and his status as a member of the adoptive family remains unchanged under traditional Hindu law.
4. R.Virupakshaiah v. Sarvamma & Anr:
   In this case, the court stated that any property inherited by a Hindu from his father, father’s father or father’s fathers’ father will be considered an ancestral property.

Relevant Statutes

• Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of, 2005 (PWDVA)

– Defines domestic violence and provides remedies

– Protecting women from physical, emotional, and economic abuse

– Providing for protection orders, maintenance, and custody of children

• Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA)

– Governs marriage, divorce, and separation among Hindus;

– Defines cruelty and desertion as grounds for divorce.

– Providing for the maintenance and custody of children

• Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act of 1956 (HMGA)

– Regulate guardianship and custody of Hindu minors

– the child’s welfare and best interests should come first.

• Special Marriage Act, 1954 (SMA)

– Governs marriage and divorce among individuals of different religions

– Provide services for civil marriage and divorce

• Indian Divorce Act, 1869 (IDA)

– Regulating divorce among Christians

– Defines grounds for divorce, including cruelty and adultery;

• Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986 (MWPDA)

– Protecting the rights of Muslim women after divorce

– Providing for the maintenance and custody of children

• Hindu Succession Act, 1956 (HSA)

– Regulates the inheritance and succession of Hindus

– Ensuring equal rights for women in inheritance

Criminal law: relevant case laws and statutes:

Criminal law related to domestic violence are statutes that prohibit and punish acts of violence, abuse, and harassment within intimate relationships, families, or households. These laws aim to protect victims of domestic violence, hold offenders accountable, and prevent further harm. They criminalize behaviours such as physical assault, sexual abuse, stalking, and emotional abuse, and provide penalties, including fines, imprisonment, and restraining orders. Examples of criminal laws related to domestic violence include laws against domestic assault, battery, and homicide, as well as statutes addressing violation of protection orders and stalking. These laws are enforced by law enforcement agencies, prosecuted by government attorneys, and adjudicated by courts, with the goal of ensuring victim safety, offender accountability, and community protection.

Relevant case laws:

• State of Maharashtra vs. Madhukar Narayan Mardikar (1991):

In this case the Supreme Court held that the prosecution must prove that the accused had the intention to commit cruelty to the victim.

• Pawan Kumar vs. State of Haryana (2003):

The Supreme Court held that the term “cruelty” under Sectio 498A IPC (Sections 85 and 86 of the BNS) includes both physical and mental cruelty.

• State of Punjab Vs. Gurmit Singh (1996):

The Supreme Court ruled that the court can infer dowry death if the accused’s cruelty or harassment drove the victim to suicide.

• Smt. Sangeeta vs. State of Haryana (2001):

The Punjab and Haryana High Court held that the victim’s statement recorded by the

Magistrate under Section 161 of the CrPC can be used as evidence in a domestic violence case.

Relevant statutes:

1. The 2013 Act on the Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal of Sexual Harassment of Women at Work:

• Shields women employees from sexual harassment at work

b. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986:

• Prohibits indecent representation of women in advertisements, publications, and other media.

c. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956:

• Prevents and combats trafficking of women and children for prostitution.

d. Domestic Violence (Amendment) Act, 2020:

• Amends the PWDVA to include new provisions, such as the right to seek shelter and medical facilities.

e. Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013:

• Amends various sections of the IPC to strengthen laws related to sexual offenses, including rape and sexual harassment.

f. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence (Amendment) Rules, 2017:

• Amends the rules under the PWDVA to provide for more effective implementation of the Act.

Jurisdictional challenges

Overlapping jurisdiction between family and criminal courts:

There can be complications and difficulties when dealing with domestic abuse cases because family and criminal courts frequently have overlapping jurisdiction. This overlap happens when cases with the same parties and facts, but distinct goals and resolutions, are allowed to be heard by both courts.

a. Key Points:

– Concurrent Jurisdiction: Cases may be heard concurrently by both courts, possibly leading to redundant proceedings.

– Sequential Jurisdiction: A case may be heard in one court, followed by an appeal or a retrial in a different court.

– Conflicting Jurisdiction: Various courts may render contradictory rulings or orders, confusing parties and possibly endangering victims.

– Shared Jurisdiction: Courts may have joint jurisdiction, with family courts handling civil cases (like custody and support) and criminal courts handling criminal charges (like assault).

– Referral between Courts: Courts may refer cases to one another, which may result in inconsistent outcomes or delays.

b. Challenges:

– Inconsistent outcomes

– Conflicting orders

– Delayed justice

– Increased stress for victims

– Forum shopping, in which parties pick the court that best suits them

c. Effective Management:

– Inter-court coordination and communication

– Clearly defined rules and procedures

– Cooperation between legal professionals, judges, and support services

– Giving victim safety and wellbeing top priority

– Simplifying procedures to prevent repetition and delays

Conflicts of law and procedure:

Diverse factors may give rise to legal and procedural conflicts in cases involving domestic violence. Laws that overlap, like criminal law, family law, and protection orders, can cause misunderstandings and disputes. Conflicts of jurisdiction can also arise when the same case is under the jurisdiction of several courts, such as the family, criminal, and civil courts, leading to redundant or contradictory rulings. Inconsistencies can also result from procedural variations between courts, such as different evidence rules and standards of proof. These conflicts can be made worse by courts having competing priorities, such as putting victim safety ahead of family reunification.

Another factor that can impede efficient case management is a lack of coordination between courts, agencies, and services. Variations in the definition of domestic violence can result in uneven legal applications, and obstacles related to language and culture can make it difficult to comprehend and navigate the legal system. Access to justice and fairness may be impacted by power dynamics, including disparities in authority between offenders and victims. Inadequate funding, time, or experience are examples of resource limitations that can impede efficient case management. And last, changing policies and practices may lead to ambiguity and disagreements.

Protection orders and restraining orders

Types and purposes of protection orders:

Protection orders are court-mandated measures intended to keep people safe from violence, abuse, or harassment. Protection orders come in a variety of forms, each with a distinct function. Restraining orders forbid people from contacting or approaching another person, whereas domestic violence protection orders shield victims of abuse from their abusers. No-Contact Orders forbid communication, while Stay-Away Orders mandate that people keep a specific distance from one another. While criminal protection orders are issued in criminal cases to shield victims from defendants, emergency protection orders offer victims of domestic abuse or stalking immediate protection. In civil cases, protection orders are granted to individuals to shield them from abuse or harassment. Permanent Restraining Orders (PROs) offer long-term protection, while Temporary Restraining Orders (TROs) provide temporary relief until a full hearing can take place. Sexual assault victims are shielded from their attackers by Sexual Assault Protection Orders. Protection orders are primarily intended to give victims a safe haven, stop additional abuse or harm, hold offenders accountable, give victims legal recourse, and discourage similar crimes in the future. These directives can be customized to fit particular circumstances and come with a range of requirements to guarantee the security and welfare of the person who is being protected.

Enforcement and violations:

When protection orders are violated in cases of domestic abuse, offenders face immediate and harsh penalties. These directives are taken seriously by law enforcement, and those who disobey them should expect:

– Arrest for disobeying the directive

– Criminal charges or accusations of contempt of court

– The cancellation of parole or probation

– Some jurisdictions have policies requiring arrests

– To enforce the order, police officers may enter the home.

– Violations of Orders

– Domestic abuse protection order violations can have serious repercussions.

The following behaviors are deemed to be infractions:

– Making contact with the victim (by phone, email, etc.)

– Going into the victim’s home or place of employment

– Making threats or harassing the sufferer

– Holding onto guns or other weapons without surrendering them

– Disobeying orders about visitation or custody

– Tracking down or pursuing the victim

Child custody and access

The confluence of criminal and family law can have a substantial effect on child custody and visitation rights in cases of domestic abuse. Making sure the child(ren) is safe and healthy is the main priority. Important things to think about are:

Evaluation of Risk

– If a child is exposed to an abusive parent, courts take that risk into account.

– Risk variables consist of:

• Domestic abuse history
• The level of violence
• The existence of weapons
• Misuse of substances
• Mental health conditions

Custody Plans

– The non-abusive parent may be granted sole custody.

– If it is determined that joint custody is not in the best interests of the child, it may be refused.

– Split custody, or giving each child their own custody, is a possibility.

Arrangements for Access

– Supervised access: The child’s interactions with the abusive parent are monitored by an impartial third party.

– Restricted access: Access is only allowed during certain hours, days, or periods of time.

– No contact: Neither direct nor indirect contact with the child is allowed for the abusive parent.

Safety Measures

– Supervised exchange: A place where parents can exchange children in a neutral setting.

– Secure communication: Parent-to-parent communication via an outside service.

– No overnight visits: It may be necessary to limit overnight visits from an abusive parent.

Criminal Convictions

– Domestic abuse convictions can result in the following consequences:

• Less or no interaction with the child.
• Controlled or restricted access.

Protection Orders

– Decisions about custody and access may be influenced by current protection orders.

– When making decisions, courts may take the protection order’s terms into account.

Best Interests of the Child

– The child’s physical, emotional, and psychological well-being is the court’s top priority.

– The age and maturity of the child may determine whether or not their wishes are honored.

Parental Alienation

– Parental alienation claims (trying to turn the child against the other parent) may be taken into consideration by courts.

– Nevertheless, the safety of the child comes before parental rights in cases of domestic abuse.

– If a child is exposed to an abusive parent, courts take that risk into account.

– Risk variables consist of:

• Domestic abuse history
• The level of violence
• The existence of weapons
• Misuse of substances
• Mental health conditions

Custody Plans

– The non-abusive parent may be granted sole custody.

– If it is determined that joint custody is not in the best interests of the child, it may be refused.

– Split custody, or giving each child their own custody, is a possibility.

Arrangements for Access

– Supervised access: The child’s interactions with the abusive parent are monitored by an impartial third party.

– Restricted access: Access is only allowed during certain hours, days, or periods of time.

– No contact: Neither direct nor indirect contact with the child is allowed for the abusive parent.

Safety Measures

– Supervised exchange: A place where parents can exchange children in a neutral setting.

– Secure communication: Parent-to-parent communication via an outside service.

– No overnight visits: It may be necessary to limit overnight visits from an abusive parent.

Criminal Convictions

– Domestic abuse convictions can result in the following consequences:

• Less or no interaction with the child.
• Controlled or restricted access.

Protection Orders

– Decisions about custody and access may be influenced by current protection orders.

– When making decisions, courts may take the protection order’s terms into account.

Best Interests of the Child

– The child’s physical, emotional, and psychological well-being is the court’s top priority.

– The age and maturity of the child may determine whether or not their wishes are honored.

Parental Alienation

– Parental alienation claims (trying to turn the child against the other parent) may be taken into consideration by courts.

– Nevertheless, the safety of the child comes before parental rights in cases of domestic abuse.

Spousal support and property division

Spousal support:

– Conduct of the parties: When calculating spousal support, the court may take the abusive spouse’s actions into account.

– Duration of marriage: The length of a marriage may affect how much and how long spousal support is provided.

– Economic circumstances: The court takes into account both parties’ financial circumstances, including any instances of economic abuse.

– Criminal convictions: Decisions about spousal support may be impacted by a criminal conviction for domestic abuse.

Property division:

– Equitable distribution: Taking into account the facts of the case, the court strives for an equitable distribution of assets.

– Exclusive possession: The non-abusive spouse may be given exclusive possession of the marital residence by the court.

– Asset protection: The court has the authority to keep assets safe from the abusive spouse’s misappropriation or concealment.

– Debts and liabilities: The division of debts and liabilities, including any incurred as a result of domestic violence, is decided by the court.

Additional considerations:

– Restraining orders: Decisions about property division and spousal support may be impacted by current restraining orders.

– Police records and evidence: When rendering judgments, the court may take into account domestic abuse records and supporting documentation.

– Expert testimony: Professionals with relevant experience, such as social workers or counselors, may provide their expert testimony.

– Best interests of the child: The child’s welfare is the court’s top priority, and decisions about property division and spousal support may be influenced by this.

Prioritizing the safety and well-being of the non-abusive spouse and any children involved, the court’s objective is to guarantee a just and equitable distribution of assets and support.

Victim safety and support

Protection Orders

Protection orders are an essential instrument for ensuring the safety of victims. By forbidding communication between the abuse victim and the offender, these orders serve as a legal safeguard against additional abuse. Depending on the situation, courts may grant orders that are either temporary or permanent.

– Types: Civil, Criminal, Temporary, Permanent

– Prohibitions: Abuse, Threats, Harassment, and Contact

– Enforcement: Courts, Police, and Proceedings for Contempt

Emergency Services

Emergency services offer victims immediate support in the form of private housing, therapy, and healthcare. These services are crucial in creating a secure atmosphere where victims can heal and start over.

– Shelter: Secure, Private Accommodation

Counseling: Trauma-Informed, Individual, and Group

– Medical Care: Mental, Emotional, and Physical

Safety Planning

A key element of victim support is safety planning. With the help of victims, qualified professionals create individualized plans that include safe housing options, escape routes, and emergency contacts.

– Risk Assessment: Recognizing Warning Indications

– Escape Routes: Secure Ways Out

– Authorities, relatives, and trusted friends as emergency contacts

– Safe Housing: Short-Term and Long-Term Solutions

Counseling and Support

Domestic violence causes emotional and psychological trauma that is addressed by counseling and support services. Victims can share their stories and get advice in a secure, private setting with qualified therapists and advocates.

– Trauma-Informed Care: Managing Psychological and Emotional Trauma

– Individual Counseling: Tailored Assistance

– Group Counseling: Validation and Peer Support

– Family Therapy: Repairing Broken Bonds

Advocacy

Victims receiving advocacy services are assisted in navigating the intricate legal system. Trained advocates support victims in making educated decisions about their lives by offering advice on court cases, protection orders, and other legal issues.

– Legal Advocacy: Protection Orders, Court Cases

– Systemic Advocacy: Community Education, Policy Reform

– Individual Advocacy: Empowering and Assisting Victims

Confidentiality

Maintaining confidentiality is crucial for shielding victims from reprisals or additional mistreatment. Service providers guarantee the confidentiality of any information disclosed by victims, unless it is required for safety reasons.

– Protections for Privacy: Federal and State Laws

– Confidentiality Agreements: Victims and Service Providers

– Information Exchange: Restricted, Required, Consented

Intersectional consideration

Ethnicity and Race

Systematic racism and bias in law enforcement and prosecution can result from the intersection of race and ethnicity with domestic abuse cases. When attempting to access support services, victims from a variety of backgrounds may encounter language and cultural barriers that prevent them from receiving enough help. Trial fairness may also be impacted by racial profiling and stereotyping in legal proceedings.

– Systematic prejudice and racism in the police and legal system

– Language and cultural barriers preventing people from receiving assistance

– Racial profiling and stereotypes in legal proceedings

– Insufficient diversity among service providers and legal professionals

Gender and Sexuality

Domestic violence cases can be made worse by discrimination and violence motivated by gender. LGBTQ+ people may be more likely to experience domestic violence and face particular legal challenges. The impartiality of trials can also be impacted by sexism and misogyny in legal proceedings.

– Discrimination and violence against women

– The experiences of LGBTQ+ people with domestic abuse and legal obstacles

– Misogyny and sexism in legal proceedings

– Limited availability of services for inclusive support

Disability

Legal proceedings and inaccessible support services may be faced by victims with disabilities. The impartiality of trials can also be impacted by ableism and stigma in legal proceedings. Additionally, because of their dependence on caregivers or communication difficulties, people with disabilities may be more susceptible to abuse.

– Inaccessible court cases and support services

– Stigma and ableism during court cases

– A disability’s increased susceptibility to maltreatment

– Restricted availability of services for disability-specific support

Immigration Status

Language obstacles and restricted access to support services can make the situation worse, and victims may be reluctant to report abuse out of fear of deportation. Trial fairness may also be impacted by how difficult it is for immigrants to navigate the legal system.

– Reluctance to report abuse and fear of deportation

– Difficulties with language and restricted access to assistance

– The difficulty of navigating immigration laws

– Limited availability of support services tailored to immigrants

Socioeconomic Status

Victims from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may experience limited access to resources and support services. Financial dependency and economic abuse can also make domestic violence cases worse. Trial fairness may also be impacted by bias and classism in legal proceedings.

– Restricted availability of resources and assistance

– Financial dependence and abuse of the economy

– Bias and classism in legal proceedings

– Restricted availability of funding and support

Age and Elder Abuse

Because of ageism and stigma, elderly people may be more susceptible to maltreatment and exploitation. Restrictions on the availability of resources and support services may make the problem worse.

– Older adults’ susceptibility to exploitation and abuse

– Stigma and ageism in legal proceedings

– Limited availability of resources and support services

– The difficulty of navigating the legal system as an elderly person

Geographic Location

Urban areas may face difficulties with policing and high rates of crime, while rural or isolated areas might have limited access to support services. The fairness of trials may also be impacted by regional variations in domestic abuse laws and policies.

– Remote or rural areas with little access to assistance services

– Urban areas with high rates of crime and difficult policing

– Disparities across regions in domestic abuse laws and policies

– Limited availability of communication and transit services

Indigenous Communities

The experience of domestic violence in Indigenous communities can be influenced by past trauma and ongoing systemic oppression. Language and cultural barriers may make it more difficult for people to access support services; in contrast, community-based solutions and self-determination may offer more effective support.

– Systemic oppression that persists and historical trauma

– Language and cultural barriers preventing people from receiving assistance

– Individual autonomy and community-based remedies

-Restricted availability of culturally competent support services

Conclusion

In summary, a thorough and well-coordinated approach is necessary to address the multifaceted needs of victims of domestic abuse where family law and criminal law collide.

– The efficient cooperation of the criminal and family law systems

– Exchanging data and organizing services

– Offering a coordinated reaction to cases of domestic abuse

– Giving victim safety and wellbeing top priority

– Dealing with control and power relations

– Taking into account how trauma affects victims

In all decision-making processes, a victim-centered approach that puts the safety and well-being of the victim first is imperative.

– Honoring victims’ autonomy and hearing what they have to say

– Attending to particular needs and issues

– Offering support services and care that is trauma-informed.

– Support for emotional and psychological trauma

– Help with practical matters, like housing and money

– Constant assistance and monitoring

In order to support diverse populations inclusively, intersectional considerations are essential.

– Dealing with the special circumstances and difficulties victims from various backgrounds encounter

– Factors related to race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, disability, immigration, age, and geography

– Offering inclusive support services that are culturally aware.

– Resolving institutional prejudice and barriers

– Taking into account how intersectionality affects victim experiences

It is essential to hold abusers responsible for their actions in order to stop additional abuse.

– Successful prosecution and punishment

– Services and programs for offenders’ rehabilitation

– Making offenders answerable for their deeds

– Preventing domestic violence in the future

– Dealing with the root causes of abuse, such as mental illness or substance misuse

– Continuous oversight and monitoring

In order to create a more responsive and supportive system for victims, legislative and policy reforms are required to address systemic barriers and policy gaps.

– Modifying laws and regulations to more effectively combat domestic abuse

– Raising money to provide support services

– Offering instruction and training to professionals who deal with victims

– Establishing a system that is more equitable and just for victims of domestic abuse

– Dealing with structural problems like homelessness and financial instability

– Enhancing domestic violence data collection and research.

References:

– Ahmad, J., Khan, M. E., Mozumdar, A., & Varma, D. S. (2016). Gender-Based Violence in Rural Uttar Pradesh, India: Prevalence and Association With Reproductive Health Behaviors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(19), 3111-3128. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515584341

– Mukherjee, R., & Joshi, R. K. (2021). Controlling Behavior and Intimate Partner Violence: A Cross-Sectional Study in an Urban Area of Delhi, India. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(19-20), NP10831-NP10842. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519876720

– Dragiewicz, M., 2014. Domestic Violence and Family Law: Criminological Concerns. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 3, pp. 121-134. https://doi.org/10.5204/IJCJSD.V3I1.109.

– https://www.jstor.org/stable/25740740